What is Reading Comprehension?

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Apple banana blue walk tree happy sing. Surely you were able to read each of the words in that sentence and understand what they meant independently. An apple is a fruit that is usually round and red, green or yellow. A banana is another fruit that is yellow. Blue is a color…and so on and so forth. However, when you look at the sentence as a whole, does it make sense? Probably not. This nonsense sentence demonstrates the difference between being able to read words and comprehend text. As practiced readers we may take this distinction for granted since the acts of reading and comprehension occur almost simultaneously for us. For developing readers this relationship is not as apparent, but is essential for them to become strong, capable readers.
What exactly IS reading comprehension?
Simply put, reading comprehension is the act of understanding what you are reading. While the definition can be simply stated the act is not simple to teach, learn or practice. Reading comprehension is an intentional, active, interactive process that occurs before, during and after a person reads a particular piece of writing.
Reading comprehension is one of the pillars of the act of reading. When a person reads a text he engages in a complex array of cognitive processes. He is simultaneously using his awareness and understanding of phonemes (individual sound “pieces” in language), phonics (connection between letters and sounds and the relationship between sounds, letters and words) and ability to comprehend or construct meaning from the text. This last component of the act of reading is reading comprehension. It cannot occur independent of the other two elements of the process. At the same time, it is the most difficult and most important of the three.
There are two elements that make up the process of reading comprehension: vocabulary knowledge and text comprehension. In order to understand a text the reader must be able to comprehend the vocabulary used in the piece of writing. If the individual words don’t make the sense then the overall story will not either. Children can draw on their prior knowledge of vocabulary, but they also need to continually be taught new words. The best vocabulary instruction occurs at the point of need. Parents and teachers should pre-teach new words that a child will encounter in a text or aid her in understanding unfamiliar words as she comes upon them in the writing. In addition to being able to understand each distinct word in a text, the child also has to be able to put them together to develop an overall conception of what it is trying to say. This is text comprehension. Text comprehension is much more complex and varied that vocabulary knowledge. Readers use many different text comprehension strategies to develop reading comprehension. These include monitoring for understanding, answering and generating questions, summarizing and being aware of and using a text’s structure to aid comprehension.
How does reading comprehension develop?
As you can see, reading comprehension is incredibly complex and multifaceted. Because of this, readers do not develop the ability to comprehend texts quickly, easily or independently. Reading comprehension strategies must be taught over an extended period of time by parents and teachers who have knowledge and experience using them. It might seem that once a child learns to read in the elementary grades he is able to tackle any future text that comes his way. This is not true. Reading comprehension strategies must be refined, practiced and reinforced continually throughout life. Even in the middle grades and high school, parents and teachers need to continue to help their children develop reading comprehension strategies. As their reading materials become more diverse and challenging, children need to learn new tools for comprehending these texts. Content area materials such as textbooks and newspaper, magazine and journal articles pose different reading comprehension challenges for young people and thus require different comprehension strategies. The development of reading comprehension is a lifelong process that changes based on the depth and breadth of texts the person is reading.
Why is reading comprehension so important?
Without comprehension, reading is nothing more than tracking symbols on a page with your eyes and sounding them out. Imagine being handed a story written in Egyptian hieroglyphics with no understanding of their meaning. You may appreciate the words aesthetically and even be able to draw some small bits of meaning from the page, but you are not truly reading the story. The words on the page have no meaning. They are simply symbols. People read for many reasons but understanding is always a part of their purpose. Reading comprehension is important because without it reading doesn’t provide the reader with any information.
Beyond this, reading comprehension is essential to life. Much has been written about the importance of functional literacy. In order to survive and thrive in today’s world individuals must be able to comprehend basic texts such as bills, housing agreements (leases, purchase contracts), directions on packaging and transportation documents (bus and train schedules, maps, travel directions). Reading comprehension is a critical component of functional literacy. Think of the potentially dire effects of not being able to comprehend dosage directions on a bottle of medicine or warnings on a container of dangerous chemicals. With the ability to comprehend what they read, people are able not only to live safely and productively, but also to continue to develop socially, emotionally and intellectually

COMMUNICATION: CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLES

Introduction

Interpersonal communication is the foundation of human interaction. Its importance for innovation and change can hardly be overemphasized. In this section, communication from different viewpoints including listening and speaking is ex.

Objectives

• To introduce communication and to demonstrate the importance of communication in a variety of contexts including that of the manager of innovation and change.
• To evaluate and discuss the characteristics of good communication and how to improve our communication.

• PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

  Communication is a two-way process of giving and receiving information through any number of channels.  Whether one is speaking informally to a colleague, addressing a conference or meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report, the following basic principles apply:
• Know your audience.
• Know your purpose.
• Know your topic.
• Anticipate objections.
• Present a rounded picture.
• Achieve credibility with your audience.
• Follow through on what you say.
• Communicate a little at a time.
• Present information in several ways.
• Develop a practical, useful way to get feedback.
• Use multiple communication techniques.

Communication is complex.  When listening to or reading someone else's message, we often filter what's being said through a screen of our own opinions.  One of the major barriers to communication is our own ideas and opinions. There's an old communications game, telegraph, that's played in a circle.  A message is whispered around from person to person.  What the exercise usually proves is how profoundly the message changes as it passes through the distortion of each person's inner "filter."

Environmental factors

Communication can be influenced by environmental factors that have nothing to do with the content of the message.  Some of these factors are:

• the nature of the room, how warm it is, smoke, comfort of the chair, etc
• outside distractions, what is going on in the area.
• the reputation/credibility of the speaker/writer.
• the appearance, style or authority of the speaker.
• listener's education, knowledge of the topic, etc.
• the language, page layout, design of the message.

People remember:

• 10% of what they read
• 20% of what they hear
• 30% of what they see
• 40% of what they hear and see

Communication with Decision Makers

Innovation and change often depends upon persuading potential users of the benefits of an innovation. To deal persuasively with decision makers, it is necessary to know and understand their interests and opinions.  The following questions are helpful in organizing technology transfer efforts:

• Who are the key people to persuade?
• Who will make the decisions about innovation and change?
• What are these decision makers' past experiences with innovation and change?
• What are the decision makers' current attitudes toward innovation and change? Are they neutral, friendly, hostile or apathetic?
• What is the most appropriate way to approach the decision maker?
• What are the work styles of the decision makers? Are they highly formal people who want everything in writing and all appointments scheduled in advance? Or are they more flexible, responding favorably to personal telephone calls and informal meetings?
• What networks or groups is the decision maker a part of?
• What programs or services will the new innovation improve?
• What programs or services will the new innovation cause problems with?
• How will the innovation or change benefit the decision maker?

Principles of Effective Persuasion

Whether making a formal presentation at a meeting or writing a report or fact sheet, the following principles hold.

• Do not oversell or overstate your case.  Make effective use of understatement.
• Outline the topic you are trying to cover into two parts.  The first part should give broad background information, while the second part provides a detailed summary.
• Persuasion depends on clarity and simplicity.  Avoid the use of jargon and buzz words.
• Be prepared to back up claims or facts immediately.
• Incorporate major anticipated objections into your program or presentation.
• Address all relevant aspects of a topic, especially those that may affect the functioning of an organization.
• Use graphics and audiovisuals appropriately.
• Consider ways to get meaningful input from people.  Find out what they think about the innovation or change.

Selling New Ideas

Creating Isn't Selling
Often the creators of an innovation feel that convincing others of the idea's value is somehow superfluous to their activities.  To them, conceiving the idea is enough.  This combines with their inner conviction that their idea will "sell itself."  Change agents provide a link between creators of new techniques and users. Ideas Need Selling
Someone must recognize when an idea is good.  It is important that when an idea is good it is sold to those who can act on it--those who have the power to evaluate and adopt it.  Understanding users is an important activity for any change agent.  People must be convinced that a particular idea or innovation has enough merit to warrant adoption.
Selling Ideas Takes Effort
Selling innovations requires preparation, initiative, patience, and resourcefulness.  It may take more effort than originating the idea.  In an age of technical complexity and information overload, new ideas seldom stand out.  Information on new ideas must be targeted to the appropriate users and relate to their needs and motivations.
Once is Not Enough
A new idea has to be suggested many times before it will "catch on."  Initial failures at promoting a new idea are to be expected, so don't get discouraged if you don't get the results you want the first time.  Some ideas take years to catch on.  However, first exposures are crucial to future prospects.  Do it right the first time

Feedback (Listening)

Getting and giving feedback is one of the most crucial parts of good communication.  Like any other activity, there are specific skills that can enhance feedback.  Listening is a key part of getting feedback: Listen to the Complete Message.  Be patient.  This is especially important when listening to a topic that provokes strong opinions or radically different points-of-view.  In these situations, it's important not to prejudge the incoming message. Learn not to get too excited about a communication until you are certain of the message.
Work at Listening Skills.  Listening is hard work.  Good listeners demonstrate interest and alertness.  They indicate through their eye contact, posture and facial expression that the occasion and the speaker's efforts are a matter of concern to them.  Most good listeners provide speakers with clear and unambiguous feedback.
Judge the Content, Not the Form of the Message.  Such things as the speaker's mode of dress, quality of voice, delivery mannerisms and physical characteristics are often used as excuses for not listening.  Direct your attention to the message--what is being said--and away from the distracting elements.
Weigh Emotionally Charged Language.  Emotionally charged language often stands in the way of effective listening.  Filter out "red flag" words (like "liberal" and "conservative," for instance) and the emotions they call up.  Specific suggestions for dealing with emotionally charged words include

• Take time to identify those words that affect you emotionally.
• Attempt to analyze why the words affect you the way they do.
• Work at trying to reduce the impact of these words on you.

Eliminate Distractions.  Physical distractions and complications seriously impair listening.  These distractions may take many forms: loud noises, stuffy rooms, overcrowded conditions, uncomfortable temperature, bad lighting, etc.  Good listeners speak up if the room is too warm, too noisy, or too dark.  There are also internal distractions:  worries about deadlines or problems of any type may make listening difficult.  If you're distracted, make an effort to clear your head.  If you can't manage it, arrange to communicate at some other time.
Think Efficiently and Critically.  On the average, we speak at a rate of 100 to 200 words per minute.  However, we think at a much faster rate, anywhere from 400 to 600 words per minute.  What do we do with this excess thinking time while listening to someone speak?  One technique is to apply this spare time to analyzing what is being said.  They critically review the material by asking the following kinds of questions:

• What is being said to support the speaker's point of view? (Evidence)
• What assumptions are being made by the speaker and the listener? (Assumptions)
• How does this information affect me? (Effect)
• Can this material be organized more efficiently? (Structure)
• Are there examples that would better illustrate what is being said? (Example)
• What are the main points of the message? (Summary)

Sending Messages

Messages should be clear and accurate, and sent in a way that encourages retention, not rejection.

• Use Verbal Feedback Even If Nonverbal Is Positive And Frequent.  Everyone needs reassurance that they are reading nonverbal communication correctly, whether a smile means "You're doing great," "You're doing better than most beginners," or "You'll catch on eventually."
• Focus Feedback On Behavior Rather Than On Personality.  It's better to comment on specific behavior than to characterize a pattern of behavior.  For example, instead of calling a colleague inefficient, specify your complaint:  "You don't return phone calls; this causes problems both in and outside your office."
• Focus Feedback On Description Rather Than Judgment.  Description tells what happened.  Judgment evaluates what happened.  For example, in evaluating a report don't say, "This is a lousy report!!"  Instead, try:  "The report doesn't focus on the information that I think needs emphasis," or "This report seems to have a lot of grammatical and spelling mistakes."
• Make Feedback Specific Rather Than General.  If feedback is specific, the receiver knows what activity to continue or change.  When feedback is general, the receiver doesn't know what to do differently.  For example, in an office situation, instead of saying "These folders are not arranged correctly," it's better feedback to say, "These should be arranged chronologically instead of alphabetically."
• In Giving Feedback, Consider the Needs and Abilities of the Receiver.  Give the amount of information the receiver can use and focus feedback on activities the receiver has control over. It's fruitless to criticize the level of activity, if the decision to grant the necessary monies for materials, personnel or technology is made at a different level.
• Check to See if the Receiver Heard What You Meant to Say.  If the information is important enough to send, make sure the person understands it.  One way of doing this is to say, "I'm wondering if I said that clearly enough.  What did you understand me to say?" or "This is what I hear you saying.  Is that right?"

Selecting the Best Communication Method

In communicating with decision makers, use the most appropriate communications method.  One way to do this is to ask yourself the following questions.

• What is the purpose of your message?  Do you plan to tell them something new?  Inform?  Do you plan to change their view?  Persuade?
• What facts must be presented to achieve your desired effect?
• What action, if any, do you expect decision makers to take?
• What general ideas, opinions and conclusions must be stressed?
• Are you thoroughly familiar with all the important information on the innovation?
• What resources and constraints affect adoption of the innovation?  How much time is available?  How much money is available
• Which method, or combination of methods, will work most effectively for this situation?    Personal contact--requires scheduling, time and interpersonal skills.

Telephone contact--requires good verbal skills and an awareness of voice tones as nonverbal communication.
Letter--requires writing skills.
e-mail�informal, needs to be short and to the point, but not get lost in clutter.  May require frequent follow-up.
News release--requires writing skills and cooperation of the media and time.

ORAL COMMUNICATION

Speaking to Communicate

Spoken communication occurs in many different settings during the course of successful innovation and change.  These may be divided into three main types:

• The formal and informal networks in which peers exchange information, such as professional associations, work units, work teams, etc.
• The activities of change agents, opinion leaders, etc.
• The contacts established at team meetings, conferences, training courses, etc.

Whether to use oral communication is a decision we all make frequently in the course of a workday.  The change agent must be able to identify those situations in which oral communication is the most appropriate one to use.  Don Kirkpatrick suggests the -following guidelines for making such decisions.

Use Oral Communication When:

• The receiver is not particularly interested in receiving the message.  Oral communication provides more opportunity for getting and keeping interest and attention.
• It is important to get feedback.  It's easier to get feedback by observing facial expressions (and other nonverbal behavior) and asking questions.
• Emotions are high. Oral communication provides more opportunity for both the sender and the receiver to let off steam, cool down, and create a suitable climate for understanding.
• The receiver is too busy or preoccupied to read. Oral communication provides more opportunity to get attention.
• The sender wants to persuade or convince.  Oral communication provides more flexibility, opportunity for emphasis, chance to listen, and opportunity to remove resistance and change attitudes.
• When discussion is needed.  A complicated subject frequently requires discussion to be sure of understanding.
• When criticism of the receiver is involved.  Oral communication provides more opportunity to accomplish this without arousing resentment.  Also, oral communication is less threatening because it isn't formalized in writing.
• When the receiver prefers one-to-one contact.

Presentation Styles

There are different styles of making a presentation and different people will use the approach that suits them. Good Old Boy:  This is usually an experienced person who is the peer of most of the audience. Generally, there is a lot of good information but it may be poorly organized or poorly delivered.
The Entertainer:  This person relies on jokes and stories to get their point across.  Good visual aids could be an important feature of the presentation.  Sometimes there is too much emphasis on satisfying the audience that little information is actually transferred.
The Academic:  This person tends to be very precise and deliberate in presenting information. There is considerable content and it usually is well organized.  Unfortunately. it can also be boring and irrelevant and not relate well to the audience.
The Reader:  This person decides to read his material word for word.  The material is often not especially prepared for an oral presentation and can be overly technical, boring and hard to understand.  All topics are covered and what is said is precise and accurate.
The Snail:  This person is nervous about the presentation and goes into a shell.  Like a snail, this person also moves slowly and the presentation seems to last forever.  What is best?  You have to have a style you are comfortable with.  Ideally, you have the rapport of the good old boy, the organization and content of the academic, the ability to get and maintain interest of the entertainer, and the precision of the reader.  If you do this you will avoid the slow pace of the snail and effectively present information to your listeners.
The Gadgeteer:  This person uses every gimmick and technique in his or her presentation and visual aids.  It can be overdone with the message getting lost among the bells and whistles.

Components of an Effective Oral Report

Introduction Capture the attention of the group right from the start.

• Give the necessary explanation of the background from which the problem derived.
• Clearly state and explain the problem.
• Clearly state your objectives.
• Indicate the method(s) used to solve the problem.
• Suggest the order in which you will provide information.

Organization

• Provide sufficient introductory information.
• Use transitions from one main part to the next and between points of the speech.
• Use summary statements and restatements.
• Make the main ideas of the report clearly distinguishable from one another.

Content

• Have adequate supporting data to substantiate what you say.
• Avoid using extraneous material.
• Present supporting data clearly--in terms of the ideas or concepts you are trying to communicate.
• Were the methods of the investigation clearly presented?
• Visual Aid Supports
• Use clear drawings, charts, diagrams or other aids to make explanations vivid and understandable.
• Make visual aids fit naturally into the presentation.
• Be completely familiar with each visual used.
• Don't clutter your report with too many visual aids.

Conclusion
Conclude your report with finality in terms of one or more of the following:

• the conclusions reached
• the problem solved
• the results obtained
• the value of such findings to the county
• recommendations offered

Question Period

• Give evidence of intelligent listening in interpreting the questions.
• Organize answers in terms of a summary statement, explanation, and supporting example.
• Show flexibility in adapting or improvising visual aids in answering questions.

Delivery

• Be natural, "communicative" in your delivery.
• Use frequent eye contact to maintain rapport with the audience.
• Vary your delivery with appropriate movements and gestures.
• Speak distinctly.
• Display confidence and authority.
• Express enthusiasm for your ideas.

VISUAL COMMUNICATION

There's an old saying that "a picture is worth a thousand words."  Life would indeed be difficult without paintings, photographs, diagrams, charts, drawings, and graphic symbols.  These are some of the reasons why SHOWING is such an important form of communication.

• Most people understand things better when they have seen how they work.
• Involved, complex ideas can be presented clearly and quickly using visual aids.
• People retain information longer when it is presented to them visually.
• Visuals can be used to communicate to a wide range of people with differing backgrounds.
• Visuals are useful when trying to condense information into a short time period.

Visual aids--used imaginatively and appropriately--will help your audience remember more. Consider the following:

• People think in terms of images, not words, so visuals help them retain and recall technical information.
• Visuals attract and hold the attention of observers.
• Visuals simplify technical information.
• Visuals may be useful in presenting technical information to a nontechnical audience.

Questions to Ask about Visual Aids:

• Is my objective clear?
• What are my key points?  Do they deserve the emphasis that a visual aid gives?
• What visual aid or aids have I planned to use?
• Will the visual aid clarify my spoken words?  Will it support my spoken words rather than replace them?
• Is each visual aid simple, orderly and consistent?  Is it free from incompatible and complicating ideas, symbols, art techniques and typefaces?  Can my audience quickly and easily grasp what they see or must it be read to them?  Avoid making it a reading session.
• Is it symbolic or pictorial?  Which treatment is best for my subject?  Which treatment is best from the standpoint of my audience?
• Is my visual direct and to the point?  Is the art functional or ornate?  Is it really one visual aid or several?  If my subject is complex, will it be presented in easily comprehensible units? (Drop-ons or overlays)  Was my artwork designed just for this presentation?
• Is my visual aid realistic?  Does it give all the pertinent facts?  Have the facts been distorted?
• Is my visual aid as effective as it can be made?  Have I used all the available techniques to make it so?
• Did I put enough effort into the planning of the visual aid?  Have I sought criticism from others?
• Will it achieve my objectives?  Will my audience understand, appreciate and believe it?  If my presentation calls for some action by the audience, will it stimulate them to do so willingly?
• Have I overlooked anything in the use of the visual aid?  Have I tested the visual aid?  Have I planned one or more rehearsals; if not, why?  Will my visual aid material be visible to the entire audience?

Visual Aid Checklist

Slides
(    )  Does the projector work properly? Bulb, lenses, change mechanism, fan.
(    )  Does each slide present a simple, clear message?
(    )  Are the slides arranged and numbered consistently and consecutively?
(    )  Are the slides clean and mounted properly?
(    )  Will the audience be able to see slide details in the location I plan to use?
(    )  Does the slide tray have a title slide at the beginning and a blind slide at the end to avoid blinding the audience with light? Power Point or Transparencies
(    )  Is the lettering large enough to be seen by the audience?
(    )  Is the projector placed so that the audience has an unobstructed view?
(    )  Is the projector and slide color scheme adequate for the lighting of the room being used?
(    )  Does the projected image fit the screen?
(    )  Are my slides in proper order?
(    )  Does each present a clear message?
(    )  Is the projector compatible with the computer being used?
Video Tape
(    )  Do you have the correct machine for the tape you plan to show (Beta or VHS)?
(    )  Is the equipment in proper working order?
(    )  Is the tape set to start at the proper place and does it "track" properly?
(    )  Will the WHOLE audience be able to see the presentation?
(    )  Is the sound level on the monitor(s) set at the proper level?
The Location
(    )  Does the room match the size of the audience?
(    )  Is the location accessible to the physically disabled?
(    )  Can the lighting be controlled for showing slides and transparencies?  If so, is a reading light available?
(    )  Is the location equipped with a projector cart or table?
(    )  Are electrical outlets conveniently located--do I need extension cords?
(    )  Is the room equipped with an adequate screen?
(    )  If using video equipment, can monitors be set up at appropriate locations?
(    )  Does the room have a speakers table or podium?
(    )  Will the location be available prior to your meeting so you can set up and test your equipment?
(     )  Is the room equipped with a newsprint easel or chalkboard?
(    )  Does the room have chairs and tables or desks?  Can they be rearranged if needed?
(    )  Is the main entrance separated from the speaker area so that late arrivals will not disrupt your presentation?
Always check out the room and equipment in advance to see that it works properly!  Never assume that it will work without trying it first.  As a general rule, the more complicated the technolgy for an oral presentation, the more likely it will fail

Checklist for Tables and Charts

(    ) Be ruthless with numbers: use the fewest possible that will still convey the point of the visual.  Do not exceed twenty numbers or a single slide.
(    )  Combine numbers into larger sums wherever possible; eliminate any number that does not contribute significantly to your message.
(    ) Consider using a chart (pie, bar, etc.) for presenting some information, especially if you want to draw comparisons between two or more items.
(    ) When preparing charts use colors or patterns with a lot of contrast.
(    ) Split information into two or three smaller tables rather than using one huge table.  Use no more than three or four columns per table.
(    ) Have a short, yet descriptive, title that states the point of the visual.  Put it at the top.  Include a date at the bottom.
(    ) Label columns clearly and at the top.  Show the units (dollars or tons, for example).  On the left, label the statistics being compared.
(    ) Avoid footnotes and symbols that may not be generally understood by your audience.
(    ) Use light horizontal lines if they improve readability.
(    ) Be consistent.  Do not mix pounds and tons, years and months, gross and net.
(    ) Avoid decimal points whenever possible.  Use round numbers for tables and graphs.
(    ) Highlight the most important numbers with boxes, underlining, or color.
(    ) If arithmetic operations are not obvious, state them: (less), or "Less Depreciation Expense."
(    ) Eliminate zeros by expressing numbers in thousands or millions, if possible.
(    ) Show negative numbers in parentheses, not with minus signs.

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written materials often bear the greatest burden for the communication of new ideas and procedures.  Effective writing is the product of long hours of preparation, revision and organization.  One book that follows its own rules is Strunk and White's Elements of Style, a short book which argues persuasively for clarity, accuracy, and brevity in the use of English.  Its entire philosophy is contained in one paragraph: �Vigorous writing is concise.  A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reasons that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts.  This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that EVERY WORD TELL.�
Clear, vigorous writing is a product of clear, vigorous thinking.  Clarity is born of discipline and imagination. Kirkpatrick gives the following guidelines for using written communication:

Use Written Communication When:

• The sender wants a record for future references.
• The receiver will be referring to it later.
• The message is complex and requires study by the receiver.
• The message includes a step by step procedure.
• Oral communication is not possible because people are not in the same place at
• the same time.
• There are many receivers.  Caution:  the receivers must be interested in the subject and will put forth the time and effort to read and understand.
• It is cheaper.  Caution:  the same as above.
• A copy of the message should go to another person.
• The receiver prefers written.

Advantages of Written Materials

• Highly technical topics can be presented using words and diagrams.
• Written material provides a permanent record that can be referred to from time to time or passed on to others.
• Written material can be duplicated in large quantities or distributed on the Internet relatively inexpensively.
• It is fairly easy to distribute written material to many people, but this practice is getting increasingly expensive and its effectiveness questionable.
• Written material is preferred when it is desirable to get the same information to a group of people.
• Written records and reports are sometimes useful in legal matters.
• Written material may be useful for documenting the success or progress of some project or activity.

Disadvantages of Written Material

• People seldom take the time and effort to read technical materials.
• The preparation of written documents is time-consuming.
• Once prepared in large quantities, printed documents are difficult to change.
• Written material provides little feedback for the sender.
• Technical documents are often too long and complex for the majority of readers.
• A portion of the population may not be able to read written material.
• Too much reliance on written material as a communication method may obscure the true needs of potential users.

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contributions of ancient greek civilizations

 Ancient Greeks made several contributions to Western civilization including philosophy, sciences, and the idea of entertainment. The Greek philosophers Socrates and Aristotle made inspirations to Western civilization. Some of the things he inspired were medicines, mathematics, and arts and architecture. As a result of Socrates audacious ways in asking so many questions, civilizations have also gained the boldness to do such things. Through the Olympic games and Greek dramas, the western world was given the concept of public amusement. Socrates' major role in inspiring modern day was his act in asking many questions. He would stop people in the streets just to ask them things, always countering their responses with other questions, eventually making them look foolish. Socrates once said; “The unexamined life is not worth living.”(Socrates Doc. 1) This quote from him sums up exactly what he believed in; being able to question oneself. He believed that everyone needs to ask questions about themselves to find their own purpose and the truth, whatever it may be. He implied that if one does not ask questions about themselves, and if one does not try to find their own significance in this world, that their life is a waste, and not worth living. With the help of Socrates, and through asking oneself various questions, civilizations have improved many things that help people live today in the modern world. Another Greek philosopher that gave inspiration to the concept of questioning was Aristotle. Aristotle believed that the reason why mankind exists is the most godlike part of human nature. Aristotle expresses this when he said; “Since human reason is the most godlike part of human nature, a life guided by human reason is superior to any other.... For man, this is the life of reason, since the faculty of reason is the distinguishing characteristic of human beings.”(Aristotle, Doc. 2) Aristotle was saying that if one guides there life by what they think their purpose may be, that their life is superior to any others and

has been well spent. He believed that human reason was the most significant factor in a person's life, and that they should be guided by it. In their time as well as today, Aristotle and Socrates are looked upon as genius’s and contributors to the ways of the modern world. Additionally, the effect of science on medicines also majorly influenced the ideas of the Western world. One of the largest influences in medicine was the Hippocratic Oath, created by Hippocrates. The Hippocratic Oath promises that Hippocrates and doctors alike will take care of patients to the best of their ability and judgment, and will never do anything purposely harmful to the people in their care. “I will follow that [treatment] which, according to my ability and judgment, I will consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is [harmful]. I will give no deadly medicine to anyone if asked, nor suggest any such [advice]”(Hippocrates, Hippocratic Oath, Doc. 4) As well as promising patients the best care their doctor is able to provide, the Hippocratic Oath also helps people to trust their doctors. With all the rival city-states and warfare going on in Greece, trust was a key element to obtain with people, especially if ones career involved the medical field. The Hippocratic Oath is still used by doctors today, but it also gave Western citizens the sense to trust their doctors. Along with medical influence, the Greeks gave us influences through mathematics. Euclid, a Greek man, is credited with discovering geometry, “If two straight lines cut one another, the vertical, or opposite angles shall be equal.”(Euclid, Doc. 5) Euclid is obviously referring to geometry and vertical angles here, however, he could also be speaking of symmetry in the world and in people. After crossing two lines, they are still lines, still equal. Just like when people cross paths, no matter what ability’s one or the other may posses, in the end they are still people; symmetrical to each other. These ideas of symmetry and geometry also influenced Western civilization. In addition, Greek arts and architecture inspired some constructional elements that are used today for the framework of some public buildings. One famous Greek building, the Parthenon(Doc 7), is an example of what modern day buildings were influenced by. An element of the Parthenon, the columns, are still being used in public buildings today. Some other ideas Greek artists and architects

gave the Western world were reflected in balance, order, and beauty. They believed that a sense of perfect balance reflected the harmony and order of the universe. This in turn helped Western citizens develop efficient and fair orders of government which then allowed peace and harmony within a community. This government system that the Greeks used was a democracy, which involved the people a lot more in making political decisions. If the Greeks had a king, it would give citizens a reason to fight against the government. The democracy allowed for peace and harmony within the Greek community. On the other hand, entertainment was very important to Greeks, and greatly influenced the ways of the Western world. Dramas as well as the Olympic games were the major elements of entertainment during these times. One Greek drama, 'Antigone' tells of a woman who buries her dead brother against the law, for he had started a rebellion, “Nor do I think your orders were so strong that you, a mortal man, could overrun the gods' unwritten and unfailing laws.”(Antigone, Doc. 6) Although Antigone may have been for entertainment purposes in its time, it taught the Greeks then, and continues to teach people today to stand up for oneself, and what one believes is right and just. Even though it was against the law, Antigone buried her brother because she believed it was the right thing to do. The other element of Greek entertainment was the Olympic games;“Myron's famous marble sculpture, Discus Thrower (Discobolus), represents an Olympic event. Myron created this sculpture around 460-450 B.C.E.”(Doc. 8) This influenced the Western world with the ideas of sports and competition among ones own people. The Olympics are still being held today and are an international event, a large part of not only the Western world, but the entire world itself. Ultimately, many Greek values greatly influenced Western civilization. Such values were philosophy, sciences, and ideas of entertainment. The philosopher Socrates gave us many inspirations to question, and others gave us influences in many sciences including medicines, mathematics, and arts and architecture. The Olympic games and Greek dramas are also still being practiced and recreated today. All these categories were meant to, and did, benefit the people as a whole. As it luckily turned

out, they benefited Western civilization as well.

Ancient Egyptian Contributions

Ancient Egyptian Contributions
 The ancient Egyptians processed thin flat sheets from the papyrus, a plant that grew along the Nile, and on these paperlike sheets they wrote their texts. Their earliest script, now known as hieroglyphs, began as a type of picture writing in which the symbols took the form of recognizable images. They originated many basic concepts in arithmetic and geometry, as well as the study of medicine and dentistry. They devised a calendar on the basis of their observations of the Sun and the stars.
The Egyptians had a decimal system using seven different symbols.
1 is shown by a single stroke.
10 is shown by a drawing of a hobble for cattle.
100 is represented by a coil of rope.
1,000 is a drawing of a lotus plant.
10,000 is represented by a finger.
100,000 by a tadpole or frog
1,000,000 is the figure of a god with arms raised above his head.
The ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper. The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares.
The ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment.
One of the two lasting contributions of the Egyptians to astronomy (in the large sense) is the 24-hour division of the day.
While at least three different systems for astronomical reference were invented in antiquity--the zodiac by the Mesopotamians, the lunar mansions in India, and the decans in Egypt--it was the decan--lO°-intervals along the ecliptic--which led to the division of the night (period of complete darkness) into 12 equal parts and ultimately the entire sidereal day into 24 hours. These decans, as they were called by the Greeks, were originally constellations rising helically 10 days apart.
A common sense desire for something fixed in the calendaric jungle led (quite early) to the adoption of a 360-day year, to which were added 5 extra days (for feasting), which the Greeks called 'epagomanal' days, making a total of 365 days. Since the mean sidereal year is approximately 365 1/4 days, even this fixed calendar fell behind the sun about 1 day every 4 years. Thus the calendar rotated over a period of 1460 years, back to its original position in relation to the position of the sun.






Some Notable Discovers or Scientist
Imhotep
Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments. Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, while opium was used to relieve pain. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until he died.
Now began the work of the embalmers, who existed as a guild even to the time of the Roman Empire. This viscera were removed and preserved in canopen, vases of clay, limestone or alabaster, the lids of which were decorated with representations of one of the four genii of the dead. After the cranial cavity was cleared of the brain by means of hooks inserted through the nose, the cavities of both the cranium and abdomen were filled with spices, myrrh and cassia. The salters then laid the corpse in a solution of carbonate of soda, where it was left usually after seventy days. At the expiration of this period it was again washed in caustic soda, then coated over with gum and finally wrapped in a cloth of fine linen. In good mummies the hair and nails are preserved, but the eyeballs have obsidian eyes inserted in them.
In embalming “of the second class” method cedar resin was injected into the unemptied cavities of the body, which was then salted down for seventy days, after which the viscera and resin were removed together. Embalming of the “third class” consisted in simply salting the body after it had been washed.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANCIENT INDIAN CIVILIZATION

Science and technology in ancient and medieval India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games
Ancient India was a land of sages, saints and seers as well as a land of scholars and scientists. Ancient India's contribution to science and technology include:

• Mathematics - Vedic literature is replete with concepts of zero, the techniques of algebra and algorithm, square root and cube root. Arguably, the origins of Calculus lie in India 300 years before Leibnitz and Newton.
• Astronomy - Rig Veda (2000 BC) refers to astronomy.
• Physics - Concepts of atom and theory of relativity were explicitly stated by an Indian Philosopher around 600 BC.
• Chemistry - Principles of chemistry did not remain abstract but also found expression in distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids, manufacturing of dyes and pigments, and extraction of sugar.
• Medical science & surgery - Around 800 BC, first compendium on medicine and surgery was complied in ancient India.
• Fine Arts - Vedas were recited and recitation has to be correct, which gave rise to a finer study of sound and phonetics. The natural corollary were emergence of music and other forms of performing arts.
• Mechanical & production technology - Greek historians have testified to smelting of certain metals in India in the 4th century BC.
• Civil engineering & architecture - The discovery of urban settlements of Mohenjodaro and Harappa indicate existence of civil engineering & architecture, which blossomed to a highly precise science of civil engineering and architecture and found expression in innumerable monuments of ancient India.
• Shipbuilding & navigation - Sanskrit and Pali texts have several references to maritime activity by ancient Indians.Sports & games - Ancient India is the birth place of chess, ludo, snakes and ladders and playing cards.

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Mathematics Mathematics represents a very high level of abstraction attained by human brain. In ancient India, roots to mathematics can be traced to Vedic literature, which are around 4000 years old. Between 1000 BC and 1000 AD, a number of mathematical treatises were authored in India.
Will Durant, American historian (1885-1981) said that India was the mother of our philosophy of much of our mathematics.
It is now generally accepted that India is the birth place of several mathematical concepts, including zero, the decimal system, algebra and algorithm, square root and cube root. Zero is a numeral as well as a concept. It owes its origin to the Indian philosophy which had a concept of 'sunya', literal translation of which is 'void' and zero emerged as a derivative symbol to represent this philosophical concept.
Geometrical theories were known to ancient Indians and find display in motifs on temple walls, which are in many cases replete with mix of floral and geometric patterns. The method of graduated calculation was documented in a book named "Five Principles" (Panch-Siddhantika) which dates to 5th Century AD.A. L. Basham, an Australian Indologist, writes in his book, The Wonder That was India that "... the world owes most to India in the realm of mathematics, which was developed in the Gupta period to a stage more advanced than that reached by any other nation of antiquity.
The success of Indian mathematics was mainly due to the fact that Indians had a clear conception of the abstract number as distinct from the numerical quantity of objects or spatial extension.
Algebraic theories, as also other mathematical concepts, which were in circulation in ancient India, were collected and further developed by Aryabhatta, an Indian mathematician, who lived in the 5th century, in the city of Patna, then called Pataliputra. He has referred to Algebra (as Bijaganitam) in his treatise on mathematics named Aryabhattiya.
Another mathematician of the 12th century, Bhaskaracharya also authored several treatises on the subject - one of them, named Siddantha Shiromani has a chapter on algebra. He is known to have given a basic idea of the Rolle's theorum and was the first to conceive of differential calculus.
In 1816, James Taylor translated Bhaskaracharya's Leelavati into English. Another translation of the same work by English astronomer Henry Thomas Colebruke appeared next year in 1817.
The credit for fine-tuning and internationalizing these mathematical concepts - which had originated in India - goes to the Arabs and Persians. Al-Khawarizmi, a Persian mathematician, developed a technique of calculation that became known as "algorism." This was the seed from which modern arithmetic algorithms have developed. Al-Khwarizmi's work was translated into Latin under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum, meaning The System of Indian Numerals. A mathematician in Arabic is called Hindsa which means from India.
The 14th century Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama, along with other mathematicians of the Kerala school, studied infinite series, convergence, differentiation, and iterative methods for solution of non-linear equations.
Jyestadeva of the Kerala school wrote the first calculus text, the Yuktibhasa, which explores methods and ideas of calculus repeated only in seventeenth century Europe.

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Astronomy Ancient India's contributions in the field of astronomy are well known and well documented. The earliest references to astronomy are found in the Rig Veda, which are dated 2000 BC. During next 2500 years, by 500 AD, ancient Indian astronomy has emerged as an important part of Indian studies and its affect is also seen in several treatises of that period. In some instances, astronomical principles were borrowed to explain matters, pertaining to astrology, like casting of a horoscope. Apart from this linkage of astronomy with astrology in ancient India, science of astronomy continued to develop independently, and culminated into original findings, like:

• The calculation of occurrences of eclipses
• Determination of Earth's circumference
• Theorizing about the theory of gravitation
• Determining that sun was a star and determination of number of planets under our solar system

The Pleiades hold a prominent place as the mothers or wet nurses of the newborn infant in one of the most ancient and central Hindu myths, that of the birth of the war-god Rudra/Skanda, who evidently represents, among other things, the victorious rising sun (and as vernal sun the new year). The Pleiades are said to have been the wives of the seven sages, who are identified with the seven stars of the Great Bear.
The Great Bear's Old Tamil name elu-meen 'seven-star' corresponds to the combination of the pictograms '7' + 'fish', which alone constitutes the entire text of one finely carved Indus seal. The Satapatha-Brahmana states that the six Pleiades were separated from their husbands on account of their infidelity; other texts specify that only one of the seven wives, Arundhati, remained faithful and was allowed to stay with her husband: she is the small star Alcor in the Great Bear, pointed out as a paradigm of marital virtue to the bride in the Vedic marriage ceremonies.
Evidence for the Harappan origin of this myth is provided, among other things, by Indus seals which show a row of six or seven human figures; their female character is suggested by the one long plait of hair, which to the present day has remained characteristic of the Indian ladies.

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Physics The root to the concept of atom in ancient India is derived from the classification of material world in five basic elements by ancient Indian philosophers. These five 'elements' and such a classification existed since the Vedic times, around 3000 BC before. These five elements were the earth (prithvi), fire (agni), air (vayu), water (jaal) and ether or space (aksha). These elements were also associated with human sensory perceptions: earth with smell, air with feeling, fire with vision, water with taste and ether/space with sound. Later on, Buddhist philosophers replaced ether/space with life, joy and sorrow.
From ancient times, Indian philosophers believed that except ether or space, all other elements were physically palpable and hence comprised of small and minuscule particles of matter. They believed that the smallest particle which could not be subdivided further was paramanu (can be shortened to parmanu), a Sanskrit word. Paramanu is made of two Sanskrit words, param meaning ultimate or beyond and anu meaning atom. Thus, the term "paramanu" literally means 'beyond atom' and this was a concept at an abstract level which indicated the possibility of splitting atom, which is now the source of atomic energy. The term "atom" however should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today.
Kanada, a 6th century, Indian philosopher was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian, philosopher Pakudha Katyayana, who was a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on logic and philosophy and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology. Similarly, the principle of relativity (not to be confused with Einstein's theory of relativity) was available in an embryonic form in the Indian philosophical concept of 'sapekshavad', the literal translation of this Sanskrit word is theory of relativity.
These theories have attracted attention of the Indologists, and veteran Australian Indologist A. L. Basham has concluded that they were brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, and in a large measure, agreed with the discoveries of modern physics.

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Chemistry Ancient India's development in chemistry was not confined at an abstract level like physics, but found development in a variety of practical activities. In any early civilization, metallurgy has remained an activity central to all civilizations from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, to all other civilizations that followed. It is believed that the basic idea of smelting reached ancient India from Mesopotamia and the Near East. Coinage dating from the 8th Century B.C. to the 17th Century A.D. Numismatic evidence of the advances made by smelting technology in ancient India.

Nataraja the God of Dance is made of five metals Pancha-Dhatu. In the 5th century BC, the Greek historian Herodotus has observed that Indian and the Persian army used arrows tipped with iron. Ancient Romans were using armor and cutlery made of Indian iron.
In India itself, certain objects testify to the higher level of metallurgy achieved by the ancient Indians. By the side of Qutub Minar, a World heritage site, in Delhi, stands an Iron Pillar. The pillar is believed to be cast in the Gupta period around circa 500 AD. The pillar is 7.32 meters tall, tapering from a diameter of 40 cm at the base to 30 cm at the top and is estimated to weigh 6 tonnes. It has been standing in the open for last 1500 years, withstanding the wind, heat and weather, but still has not rusted, except very minor natural erosion. This kind of rust proof iron was not possible till iron and steel was discovered few decades before.
The advance nature of ancient India's chemical science also finds expression in other fields, like distillation of perfumes and fragment ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, polishing of mirrors, preparation of pigments and colours. Paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora (both World heritage sites) which look fresh even after 1000 years, also testify to the high level of chemical science achieved in ancient India.

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Medicine & Surgery Ayurveda as a science of medicine owes its origins in ancient India. Ayurveda consists of two Sanskrit words - 'ayur' meaning age or life, and 'veda' which means knowledge. Thus, the literal meaning of Ayurveda is the science of life or longevity. Ayurveda constitutes ideas about ailments and diseases, their symptoms, diagnosis and cure, and relies heavily on herbal medicines, including extracts of several plants of medicinal values. This reliance on herbs differentiates Ayurveda from systems like Allopathy and Homeopathy. Ayurveda has also always disassociated itself with witch doctors and voodoo.
Ancient scholars of India like Atreya, and Agnivesa have dealt with principles of Ayurveda as long back as 800 BC. Their works and other developments were consolidated by Charaka who compiled a compendium of Ayurvedic principles and practices in his treatise Charaka-Samahita, which remained like a standard textbook almost for 2000 years and was translated into many languages, including Arabic and Latin. 'Charaka-Samahita' deals with a variety of matters covering physiology, etiology and embryology, concepts of digestion, metabolism, and immunity. Preliminary concepts of genetics also find a mention, for example, Charaka has theorized blindness from the birth is not due to any defect in the mother or the father, but owes its origin in the ovum and the sperm.
In ancient India, several advances were also made in the field of medical surgery. Specifically these advances icluded areas like plastic surgery, extraction of catracts, and even dental surgery. Roots to the ancient Indian surgery go back to at least circa 800 BC. Shushruta, a medical theoretician and practitioner, lived 2000 years bebore, in the ancient Indian city of Kasi, now called Varanasi. He wrote a medical compendium called 'Shushruta-Samahita. This ancient medical compendium describes at least seven branches of surgery: Excision, Scarification, Puncturing, Exploration, Extraction, Evacuation, and Suturing. The compendium also deals with matters like rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and ophthalmology (ejection of cataracts). The compendium also focuses on the study the human anatomy by using a dead body.
In ancient India Medical Science supposedly made many advances. Specifically these advances were in the areas of plastic surgery, extraction of cataracts, and dental surgery. There is documentary evidence to prove the existence of these practices.
An artist's impression of an operation being performed in ancient India. In spite of the absence of anesthesia, complex operations were performed. The practice of surgery has been recorded in India around 800 B.C. This need not come as a surprise because surgery (Shastrakarma) is one ofthe eight branches of Ayurveda the ancient Indian system of medicine. The oldest treatise dealing with surgery is the Shushruta Samahita (Shushruta's compendium). Shusruta who lived in Kasi was one of themany Indian medical practitioners who included Atraya and Charaka. He was one of the first to study the human anatomy. In the Shusruta, Samahita he has described in detail the study of anatomy withthe aid of a dead body. Shusruta's forte was rhinoplasty (Plastic surgery)and ophthalmialogy (ejection of cataracts). Shushruta has described surgery under eight heads Chedya (excision), Lekhya (scarification),Vedhya (puncturing), Esya (exploration), Ahrya (extraction), Vsraya (evacuation) and Sivya (Suturing).
Yoga is a system of exercise for physical and mental nourishment. The origins of yoga are shrouded in antiquity and mystery. Since Vedic times, thousand of years before, the principles and practice of yoga have crystallized. But, it was only around 200 BC that all the fundamentals of yoga were collected by Patanjali in his treatise, named Yogasutra, that is, Yoga-Aphorisms.
In short, Patanjali surmised that through the practice of yoga, the energy latent within the human body may be made live and released, which has a salubrious affect on the body and the mind. Now, in modern times, clinical practices have established that several ailments, including hypertension, clinical depression, amnesia, acidity, can be controlled and managed by yogic practices. The application of yoga in physiotherapy is also gaining recognition.

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Civil Engineering & Architecture
Gateway At Harappa: Indus Valley Civilization India's urban civilization is traceable to Mohenjodaro and Harappa, now in Pakistan, where planned urban townships existed 5000 years before. From then onwards, the ancient Indian architecture and civil engineering continued to develop and grow. It found manifestation in construction of temples, palaces and forts across the Indian peninsula and the neighbouring regions. In ancient India, architecture and civil engineering was known as sthapatya-kala, literal translation of which means the art of constructing (something).
During the periods of Kushan Empire and Maurya empires, the Indian architecture and civil engineering reached to regions like Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Statues of Buddha were cut out, covering entire mountain faces and cliffs, like Buddhas of Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Over a period of time, ancient Indian art of construction blended with Greek styles and spread to Central Asia.
On the other side, Buddhism took Indian style of architecture and civil engineering to countries like Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, China, Korea and Japan. Angkor Wat is a living testimony to the contribution of Indian civil engineering and architecture to the Cambodian Khmer heritage in the field of architecture and civil engineering.
In mainland India of today, there are several marvels of ancient India's architectural heritage, including World heritage sites like Ajanta, Ellora, Khajuraho, Mahabodhi Temple, Sanchi, Brihadisvara Temple and Mahabalipuram.

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Production Technology Mechanical and production technology of ancient India ensured processing of natural produce and their conversion into merchandise of trade, commerce and export. A number of travelers and historians (including Megasthanes, Ptolemy, Faxian, Xuanzang, Marco Polo, Al Baruni and Ibn Batuta) have indicated a variety of items, which were produced, consumed and exported around that society's "known world" by the ancient Indians.

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Shipbuilding & Navigation A panel found in Mohenjodaro depicts a sailing craft, and thousands of years later Ajanta murals also depict a sea-faring ship. The science of shipbuilding and navigation was well known to ancient Indians. Sanskrit and Pali texts are replete with maritime references, and ancient Indians, particularly from the coastal regions, were having commercial relations with several countries of across the Bay of Bengal like Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and even up to China. Similar maritime and trade relations existed with countries across the Arabian Sea like Arabia, Egypt and Persia.
Even around circa 500 AD, sextants and mariner's compass were not unknown to ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators. J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, at around the beginning of the 20th century has got published in the Bombay Gazetteer that "The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word 'Maccha-Yantra', or 'fish-machine', which Molesworth gives as a name for the mariner's compass".

CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANCIENT CHINEASE CIVILIZATION

China held the world’s leading position in many fields in the study of nature, from the 1st century before Christ to the 15th century, with the four great inventions having the greatest global significance – papermaking, printing, gunpowder and the compass. Actually China contributed countless ancient inventions to the world. Ancient Chinese inventions such as gunpowder, silk, paper, and the compass were and still are prominent pieces of Chinese and global life.

 1. Paper Making  105 A.C

Paper was first invented in China about 105 A.C. Its use then spread to Chinese Turkestan in central Asia, the Arab world (c. 751 A.D.), Syria, Egypt, Morocco, Spain (c. 1150 A.D.), southern France, and the rest of Europe.

2. Movable Type Printing  960-1279 AD

In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), a man named Bi Sheng carved individual characters on identical pieces of fine clay. Each movable type had on it one Chinese character which was carved in relief on a small block of moistened clay. After the block had been hardened by fire, the type became hard and durable and could be used anytime and anywhere. The movable type pieces could be glued to an iron plate and easily detached from the plate. Characters could be assembled to print a page and then broken up and redistributed as needed. When the printing was finished, the pieces could be put away for future use.

3. Gunpowder 1000 A.D

Gunpowder was invented in China c. 1000 A.D. and probably spread to Europe during the Mongol expansion of 1200-1300 A.D., but this has not been proven. The use of gunpowder in Europe was first recorded in 1313. Europeans used gunpowder for cannons, while the Chinese used it primarily for firecrackers. Despite such early knowledge of explosives and their use, China did not pursue the development of weaponry as did the West; ironically, it was through the use of cannons and guns that the Europeans were able to dominate China in the mid-to late-1800s.

4. Compass 1100 A.D.

Historians believe that the Chinese invented the magnetic compass and used it for navigation c. 1100 A.D. Arab traders sailing to China probably learned of the Chinese method of sailing by compass and returned to the West with the invention.

5. Alcohol    About 2000 BC－1600 BC

The earliest alcohol makers in Chinese legend were Yi Di and Du Kang of the Xia Dynasty (about 2000 BC－1600 BC). Research shows that ordinary beer, with an alcoholic content of 4% to 5%, was widely consumed in ancient China and was even mentioned on oracle bone inscriptions as offerings to spirits during sacrifices in the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC–1046 BC). After that, Chinese discovered that adding more cooked grain in water during fermentation could increase the alcohol content, so stronger drinks began to appear. Around 1000 BC, the Chinese created an alcoholic beverage which was stronger than 11%. The potent libation was mentioned in poetry throughout the Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC–256 BC). Meanwhile, no beer in the West reached 11% until the 12th century, when distilled alcohol was first made in Italy.

6. Mechanical Clock 618－907 AD

According to historical research, the world’s first clock was invented by Yi Xing, a Buddhist monk and mathematician of the Tang Dynasty (618－907). Yi’s clock operated with water steadily dripping on a wheel that made a full revolution every 24 hours. As time went on, clocks were made with an iron and bronze system of hooks, pins, locks and rods, but still followed Yi Xing’s clock design. Hundreds of years later, Su Song, an astronomer and mechanist of the Song Dynasty (960－1279), created a more sophisticated clock, making him the ancestor of the modern clock.

7. Tea Production   2,737 BC

According to Chinese legend, tea was first drunk by the Chinese Emperor Shen Nong around 2,737 BC. Then, an unknown Chinese inventor created the tea shredder, a small device that used a sharp wheel in the center of a ceramic or wooden pot that would slice the leaves into thin strips. During the Tang (618－907) and Song (960－1279) dynasties, tea production developed rapidly, and tea became a popular drink around the country and the world. Cha Jing, written by Lu Yu in the Tang Dynasty, is widely recognized as the world’s first scientific work about tea production.

8. Silk  About 2,100 years ago

Silk was invented by China. As early as 2,100 years ago, the country had mastered the sophisticated technique of silk weaving – aristocrats in the West were willing to pay gold of the same weight for the silks. The road used to transport silk called the Silk Road. Today, China is still the largest producer of silk.

9. Practical Umbrella 386-532 AD

The first practical umbrella, invented in China during the Wei Dynasty (386-532 AD), was designed to protect from both the rain and the sun. Soon thereafter they took on a more symbolic meaning as ceremonial ornaments and momentos of the Emperor’s trust.

10. Acupunture Between the 11th and 2nd century B.C.

The Chinese system of acupuncture became one of the healing options available in the west starting in about the 1970s. Very different from the causal concept of western medicine, the needling aspect of acupuncture may stem from as far back as between the 11th and 2nd century B.C., according to Douglas Allchin:

11. Iron and steel smelting 1050 BC－256 BC

It has been confirmed by archaeological evidence that iron, made from melting pig-iron, was developed in ancient China in the early 5th century BC during the Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC－256 BC). During the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC－1046 BC) to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC－256 BC), China went into a flourishing period for steel smelting. In the Han Dynasty (202 BC－220 AD), private-enterprise iron-making was abolished and was monopolized by the state, creating an iron-smelting bloom. The first famous metallurgist in ancient China is Qiwu Huaiwen of the Northern Wei Dynasty (386－557 AD), who invented the process of using wrought iron and cast iron to make steel.

12. Porcelain  581 – 618 AD

Porcelain is a very specific kind of ceramic produced by the extreme temperatures of a kiln. The materials fuse and form a glass and mineral compound known for its strength, translucence and beauty. Invented during the Sui Dynasty (but possibly earlier) and perfected during the Tang Dynasty (618-906), most notably by Tao-Yue (c. 608 – c. 676), Chinese porcelain was highly prized throughout the world. The porcelain of Tao-Yue used a ‘white clay’ that was found on the edge of the Yangtze River, where he lived. By the time of the Sung Dynasty (960-1279) the art of porcelain had reached its peak. In 1708 the German Physicist Tschirnhausen invented European porcelain, thus ending the Chinese monopoly. The picture above is a teabowl with black glaze and leaf pattern from the Southern Sung Dynasty (1127-1279).

13. Earthquake Detector 132 A D    

A seismograph was developed by the brilliant scientist, mathematician, and inventor Chang Heng (whose works also show he envisaged the earth as a sphere with nine continents and introduced the crisscrossing grid of latitude and longitude). His invention was noted in court records of the later Han Dynasty in 132 AD (the fascinating description is too long to reproduce here. It can be found on pgs. 162-166 of Temple’s book). Modern seismographs only began development in 1848.

14. Rocket  228 A D

Ancient Chinese rockets date back to at least the third century. In 228, the Wei State used torches attached to arrows to defend Chencang against the invading forces of the Shu State. By the late 10th century, the Song Dynasty (960-1279) had mastered the art of using gunpowder in its rockets. Paper tubes filled with gunpowder and fitted with blasting fuses were attached to arrows. Later on, the gunpowder was carried directly inside the arrow. These high-speed weapons wreaked terror on the enemy.

15. Bronze  1700 B.C.

The Chinese Bronze Age had begun by 1700 B.C. in the kingdom of the Shang dynasty along the banks of the Yellow River in northern China. The Chinese craft of bronze-casting has endured for nearly four thousand years. Scientists studied and learned the properties of the metal ore that they found in nature. Science revealed the idea and process for mining and smelting the metal. The craft of casting the hot liquid metal was born. Elaborate bronze artifacts date back thousands of years.

16. The Kite About 3, 000 years ago

Chinese inventions ran the gamut from fun to practical. The kite was invented in ancient China around 3,000 years ago and initially had purely utilitarian uses. Over time kite flying developed into a hobby for the Chinese elite and kite flying is now enjoyed worldwide. No one really knows when the first kite was flown, but legend has it that a Chinese farmer tied his hat to a string to keep it from blowing away and as a result, the first kite was created. It is also speculated that kites came to be as a result of observing wind in the sails of Chinese fishing boats. A further speculation is that the first kite was simply a huge leaf with a long string attached.

17. The Seed drill  3500 years ago

The seed drill is a device that plants the seed into the ground. It replaces the farmer to plant the seeds by hand, thus allowing the farmer to plant more acreage. The first seed drill was introduced to Europe in sixteenth century, 3500 years after the Chinese had invented it.

18. Row Crop Farming 6 Century BC

The Chinese started planting crops in rows sometime in the 6th century BC. This orderly technique allowed farmers to irrigate more effectively and produce a higher crop yield.

19. Toothbrush 1498 in China

The bristle toothbrush, similar to the type used today, was not invented until 1498 in China. The bristles were actually the stiff, coarse hairs taken from the back of a hog’s neck and attached to handles made of bone or bamboo.

20. Paper Money 9^th century AD.

The Chinese invented paper money at the end of the eighth or beginning of the ninth century AD. Its original name was ‘flying money’ because it was so light and could blow out of one’s hand. The first paper money was, strictly speaking, a draft rather than real money. A merchant could deposit his cash in the capital, receiving a paper certificate which he could then exchange for cash in the provinces. This private merchant enterprise was quickly taken over by the government in 812. The technique was then used for the forwarding of local taxes and revenues to the capital. Paper ‘exchange certificates’ were also in use. These were issued by government officials in the capital and were redeemable elsewhere in commodities such as salt and tea.

It is true that the Chinese are responsible for numerous inventions that have helped shape history due to their applicability and convenience. Without the advancements made by the ancient Chinese, technology and culture would have taken countless more centuries to develop to their current stage. Do you know any other influential inventions? Please share with us by adding a comment.

CONTRIBUTIONS IN MEDICINE
The history of Chinese medicine dates back to about 200BC. Since then, Chinese have been established the original method and medicine. They has benefit which Western medicine don't have. And nowadays, the value began to be noticed around the world.


Chinese Herbal Medicine

Chinese Medicine

In China, unique medical treatment has been developed during its long history. In the civilization of the Hun people, about 200 BC, the first description of medical treatment has been discovered. In other Chinese Civilizations, many artifacts describing medical treatment have been unearthed, and have shown China to be a nation highly in tune with treating common ailments.

In the South, where the climate is mild, and many plants and animals live, Herbal medicine developed. This herbal medicine and Acupuncture are common in Chinese medicine as a way to heal the entire body, and free it from disease and pain. This is the difference between Chinese medical treatment and western medicine. Often times Chinese medical treatment takes a long time to work, but they are worth the wait in terms of their long-term value. It seems even today Western medicine is turning its eyes to alternative medicine, as it sees the potentialities to heal.

Chinese Herbal Medicine

Chinese herbal medicine is for the treatment of stomachaches, headaches, colds, the flu, and sore throats. The medicine includes marvelous things such as taking snake gall bladder or powdered deer antlers. Not necessary tasty delights, but many believe in their power to heal.

When reading about the theory begin of Chinese medicine, the word "holistic" appears often. Basically, this means that Chinese medicine seeks to threat the whole body rather than focusing on a particular organ or disease. For example, Chinese doctors may try to fight the infection using all the bodies defenses, whereas western doctors would simply cut out the appendix. In this instance the western technique works better since removing the appendix surgically is 100% effective, though there is always some risk from the surgical procedure itself. In the case of migraine headaches, on the other hand, Chinese herbs may actually prove more effective than western medical treatment.

One of the benefits of Chinese medicine is this there are relatively few side effects. Nevertheless, herbs are still medicine, not candy, and there is no need to take them if you're feeling fine to begin with. In fact, some herbs are mildly toxic and if taken over a long period of time can actually damage the liver and other organs.

Acupuncture and Moxa Cautery

Chinese Medicine

In China, unique medical treatment has been developed during its long history. In the civilization of the Hun people, about 200 BC, the first description of medical treatment has been discovered. In other Chinese Civilizations, many artifacts describing medical treatment have been unearthed, and have shown China to be a nation highly in tune with treating common ailments.

In the north, where the climate is severe, acupuncture and Moxa Cautery developed. It developed with another well-known Chinese medicine, herbal medicine. These two medical treatments are common in Chinese medicine as a way to heal the entire body, and free it from disease and pain. This is the difference between Chinese medical treatment and western medicine.

Acupuncture and Moxa Cautery

Acupuncture and Moxa Cautery are eastern physical medical treatment for reducing pain and healing fatigue. It was said that there are thirty roads of energy existing inside the body, and they work to balance the bodies internal and external physiology. When there is an unbalance, diseases are said to occur, and they appear as changes in the road. There are fourteen main roads in the human body, and from ten toxicity points exist on the each road. Doctors treat acupuncture or Moxa Cautery on the points of patient as to their symptom. Doctors who practice acupuncture feel along these points to detect weak energy and disease.  

Achievements and Contributions of the Ancient Civilizations

Summary: Ancient civilizations that made significant contributions to today's modern society. the wheel, the alphabet, and government.

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New ideas and inventions of ancient civilizations were important, but how they evolved and led to new and more complex ideas and inventions are imperative to our society today. There are a plethora of contributions that early civilizations have made to today's society. For instance, the Phoenicians are the originators of the alphabet that we use today in the United States. Additionally, the advances and innovations that Egypt made have greatly assisted our society. Egypt came up with a fantastic political system. Furthermore, Egypt also improved the wheel by altering it. First and foremost, one of the greatest contributions to society is the alphabet that we use today. The Asiatics, Phoenicians, and Greeks all contributed and revised their writing systems to give us our present day alphabet. Without a way to write, we would still be using symbols and pictures to tell stories. These ancient civilizations had fantastic writing systems, and because of this, today, we also do.
In addition, Egypt's advances were particularly outstanding. Their advances in their political systems allowed the Egyptians to remain powerful for almost 4000 years. The political systems of these regions were original. The Egyptian government was the first centralized authority that is dated. This allowed them to organize huge projects such as the Great Pyramids, and to utilize the Nile River for irrigation of crops, and water for the towns. Today, we have a government that allows us to have an army, voice our opinions, and other freedoms. Without the Egyptians, our society would be ran very different.
Last but not least, the wheel was a pivotal invention in history. Egyptians improved the wheel in a way that was quite significant. They had added spokes to the wheel for stability, support, and performance. Research shows that the Egyptians used spoked wheels as far back as 2000 B.C. This idea caught on very well, there are spoked wheels from c1500 B.C. in India, and the Romans used spoked wheels on chariots and other forms of transportation. The wheel evolved into what it is today with the help of the Egyptians.
In conclusion, over time these advancements brought people into a more efficient living environment, allowing for higher population and spread of cultural, political, economic, and social ideals over large geographical areas. Without the alphabet, our government, and the wheel, I could not picture society being the same as it is today.